Choi Hyung-guk's Historical Essays (25) Guan Yu: When the God Crossed Over to Joseon

- Guan Yu Wielding the Crescent Blade Aloft

Guan Yunchang stands tall with his crescent blade raised high, his long white beard flowing.

The stories of Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei from the『Records of the Three Kingdoms』(三國志) are so widely known that they have been read as popular novels not only in China but throughout East Asia. In recent times, they have been adapted into films and television historical dramas, gaining recognition worldwide. Among them, Guan Yu (關羽), called the "Sage of Martial Arts" (武聖) and depicted as a master of martial prowess, is an attractive figure with distinctive appearance and noble character.

This admiration for Guan Yu was also prevalent during the Joseon Dynasty. From the time of the Japanese invasions of Imjin, Guan Yu held a central place in the faith of Ming military forces that came as reinforcements to Joseon. Shrines devoted to Guan Yu faith were positioned at the four cardinal directions within Seoul's city walls. The first line of Seoul's subway station "Dongmyo" (東廟) is actually an abbreviation of "Donggwanwangmyo" (東關王廟), the eastern shrine of Guan Yu. Today, shrines dedicated to Guan Yu remain in several Southeast Asian countries and along Korea's West Coast.

More specifically, the Gwanwangmyo (關王廟), the shrine dedicated to Guan Yu in Joseon, first appeared during the Japanese invasions of Imjin. However, for nearly a century it was primarily visited by those seeking personal blessings through Guan Yu's supernatural efficacy. When King Seonjo first visited this place, he merely followed the precedent of a king visiting a military temple (武廟). Subsequently, it was included in the state sacrificial system, with only modest ritual offerings being conducted.

From the reign of King Sukjong through that of King Jeongjo, this place took on new national significance. Specifically, Guan Yu was used as a target of political reverence to serve as a medium for heightening loyalty to the monarch. This trend became evident from King Sukjong's reign. Sukjong impressed upon his officials the image of Guan Yu as embodying loyalty and righteousness (忠義) and reverence for legitimate rule (尊周).

In the『Records of the Three Kingdoms』, Liu Bei is portrayed as valuing justice (正義) over worldly accommodation. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei became sworn brothers with Liu Bei after witnessing his commitment to reclaiming the lost Han Dynasty, risking their lives in battle. These three sworn brothers, having made their covenant in the Peach Orchard, became recognized by people of the time as generals upholding the "Doctrine of Shu Han's Legitimacy" (촉한정통론), regarding the Kingdom of Shu as the most legitimate state. Their remarkable stories spread widely in Joseon through Luo Guanzhong's popular novel『Romance of the Three Kingdoms』(三國演義). King Sukjong also gained insight from observing Guan Yu.

Sukjong established the Gwanwangmyo shrine dedicated to Guan Yu and conducted sacrificial rites there. He also established shrines to past loyal subjects throughout the capital, ensuring that the ideology of loyalty and integrity spread among both civil and military officials as well as the common people. Sukjong showed particular affection for Guan Yu, even having poems of his own composition displayed at both the southern and eastern Gwanwangmyo. He went so far as to overcome opposition from his officials and personally visit the Gwanwangmyo shrine in ceremonial armor, presiding over sacrifices with his civil and military officials.

A record of Sukjong's personal memorandum on this matter survives. It reads: "Ah! The loyalty and righteousness of the Martial and Peaceful King (武安王, referring to Guan Yu) is truly rare throughout the ages. My visit yesterday to view the portrait was truly an uncommon expression of shared sentiment with the world, and also intended to encourage military officers—it was not merely to enjoy leisure for a moment. Ah, you generals and soldiers must emulate this intention, exert yourselves further in loyalty and righteousness, and protect the royal house. This is what I desire."

Through the Gwanwangmyo ritual, Sukjong encouraged his officials not to devote themselves solely to factional interests, but to return to loyalty toward the royal house and the monarch. Whenever Sukjong traveled to former kings' tombs, he made stops at either the eastern or southern Gwanwangmyo depending on location to conduct sacrifices, and pressured civil and military officials participating in the tomb visit to make oaths of loyalty.

Although Sukjong elevated Guan Yu to royal status as the Martial and Peaceful King (武安王), civil officials sometimes resisted because Guan Yu was of military origin. Since Sukjong's reign was a period of political turmoil marked by multiple instances of factional rotation (換局) between the Seo and Nam factions, King Sukjong boldly accepted Guan Yu into Joseon as an absolutely trustworthy figure.

Sukjong highlighted Guan Yu's significance not as blind loyalty to the monarch, but as devotion to universal justice transcending the state. Furthermore, Guan Yu was presented not merely as a military commander of superior martial prowess, but as a general willing to sacrifice his life for righteousness, one who enjoyed reading various Confucian classics including the『Spring and Autumn Annals』(春秋). This could serve as a compelling means of pressure not only for military officers but also for civil officials who wielded the brush.

In this way, Sukjong expounded upon the legitimacy and righteousness represented by Guan Yu's "martial" (武) nature in the context of domestic politics, demanding absolute loyalty from his officials. Subsequently, Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo established the Gwanwangmyo as Joseon's military temple. Before embarking on tomb visits or royal excursions, the king would don armor and first pay respects at the military temple, requiring officials to show proper etiquette. Imagine the sight of the king clad in armor like Guan Yu at that location!

Furthermore, in 1896 (King Kojong year 33), when preparing for the Korean Empire while proclaiming imperial status, King Kojong elevated the previously uncodified Gwanwangmyo ritual from minor sacrifice (小祀) to medium sacrifice (中祀) in the newly compiled『Great Korean Ritual Code』(大韓禮典), publicly affirming Guan Yu's loyalty and integrity.

- The Guan Yu Legend Embodied in the Crescent Blade's 'Five Gates Beheading Generals Posture'

Among the martial techniques recorded in the『Manual of Martial Arts』, the crescent blade (月刀) includes a posture called the "Five Gates Beheading Generals Posture" (五關斬將勢), a stance that swings the blade widely left and right to deliver the most explosive force. The story of Guan Yu is contained within this posture. As the name suggests, it represents Guan Yu beheading military commanders guarding five gates (五關).

The posture corresponds to swinging the crescent blade in a large rotation, horizontally beheading from left to right, followed immediately by a diagonal downward sweep to knee height (向右回擊-掃左一擊). A historical anecdote called "Beheading Six Generals at Five Gates" (五關斬六將) illustrates Guan Yu's martial prowess and loyalty. However, this appears only in Luo Guanzhong's novel『Romance of the Three Kingdoms』(三國演義), not in the historical records『Records of the Three Kingdoms』(三國志). It is likely a dramatized version created to highlight Guan Yu's martial skills.

The actual historical context is as follows: Facing Cao Cao's persistent attacks, Liu Bei lost many soldiers and sought refuge with Yuan Shao in Hebei. Zhang Fei retreated into Mount Wangtan. Guan Yu, through the persuasion of Cao Cao's general Zhang Liao, temporarily joined Cao Cao's forces.

At that time, Guan Yu set three conditions: first, that his allegiance was to the Han imperial household, not to Cao Cao; second, that Cao Cao would care well for Liu Bei's two senior wives; and third, that he could depart at any time upon learning of Liu Bei's whereabouts. After confirming Liu Bei's location, Guan Yu decided to leave Cao Cao with the two senior wives (Lady Gan and Lady Mi) and return to Liu Bei.

In the novel『Romance of the Three Kingdoms』, Guan Yu is depicted as quietly leaving a letter for Cao Cao before departing. During his journey to rejoin Liu Bei, he successively beheaded military commanders guarding five fortified gates, breaking through each one with a single stroke. This sequence of events became known as "Beheading Six Generals at Five Gates" (五關斬六將). At this time, Guan Yu fled on horseback toward Luoyang.

At the first gate, Donglingguan, he beheaded commander Kong Xiu. At the second gate, Luoyangguan, he felled commanders Han Fu and Meng Tan with a single blow. At the third gate, Sishui Gate, he killed commander Bian Xi and his assassins. At the fourth gate, Xingyangguan, he beheaded the regional inspector Wang Zhi. Finally, at Huazhou Gate, which led to the Yellow River, he severed the head of Xiahou Dun's subordinate Qin Qi, then crossed the Yellow River to return to Liu Bei.

However, in historical records, Cao Cao merely expressed regret, saying "each person has their own master; do not pursue," and did not send pursuers. If Guan Yu had actually broken through five strategically important gates and beheaded commanders, even Cao Cao would not have allowed such a formidable general to depart unscathed.

The various martial postures in the twenty-four martial techniques recorded in the『Manual of Martial Arts』contain numerous such stories and legends. Misunderstanding the symbolism and context of these legends leads to entirely different conclusions. As the saying goes, "Point at the moon with your finger to show someone, but they see only the finger, not the moon." No matter how correctly one points at the moon with one's finger, if people see only the finger and claim the moon is not there, it becomes quite frustrating. Rather than criticizing the finger, one should observe the moon. If the moon still cannot be seen, there is nothing more to say or do.